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The Iberomaurusian enigma: North African progenitor or dead end?
In the past, Iberomarusian peoples havebeencalledMechta-Afalou,Mechta el-Arbi, and/or Mechtoid types (see Ferembach,1962,1985;Vallois,1969; Chamla, 1973, 1975, 1978; Camps, 1974; Dutour, 1985). They are a skeletally-robust population that resembles European Cro-magnon to some extent (Briggs, 1955; Chamla,1978;Ferembach,1962,1985; Clark,1989; Groves & Thorne, 1999), although they are said to be more rugged (Pond, 1928; Hiernaux, 1975) or to vary in additional ways (Briggs, 1954; Ferembach, 1962; Vallois, 1969).
[..]
A few researchers maintain that the Capsians were indigenous (see below), but others (Briggs,1954,1955;Ferembach, 1962,1985:396;Camps,1974;Chamla, 1978) believe these‘‘proto-Mediterranean’’ peoples migrated into the area from the east—perhaps from as far afield as West Asia.
[...]
Iberomaurusians may have even survive into the early Holocenin the Malinese Sahara(Petit-Maire&Dutour, 1987)and along the Atlantic coast (Ferembach, 1985), and there are reports (Balout&Briggs,1949;Briggs,1954, 1955;Ferembach,1962;Chamla,1973, 1975, 1978; Camps, 1974; Camps-Fabrer, 1975)of robust Mechta-Afalou-or Mechtoid-like skeletal remains in Capsian and later Maghrebsites[e.g.Mechta el-Arbi, Medjez II, Grotte des Hye`nes, Rio Salado (see Camps, 1974 for a full listing)]. Therefore, they could indeed be ancestors to late rnorthwest Africans,including Capsians. Moreover, Lubellet al. (1984) feel that if there was eastern influence, it prob- ably came from the Nile Valley (i.e., Late Pleistocene Nubians) rather than West Asia.
Concerning the question of affinity to contemporaneous peoples, previous studies show that Late Pleistocene Nubians share a number of similarities with Iberomaurusians; the former’sQadan(ca. 15,000–11,000 BP) microlithic industry was like that in the Maghreb (Clark,1970; Ferembach, 1985; Phillipson, 1994), and they had comparable burial practices—as evident at the Jebel Sahaba cemetery (SMU117) in Lower Nubia (Wendorf, 1968).
[...]
However, Bermudez de Castro’s (1991) dental comparison between the small Wadi Halfa Nubian sample and the Taforalt and Afalou-Bou-Rhummel Iberomaurusians was inconclusive. Further, Camps (1974) reports that the Qadan tool industry differs noticeably from that of the Iberomaurusians, and describes several physical differences between the two contemporaneous populations. Along these lines, craniofacial (Franciscus,1995,personal communication,1995),dental(Irish,1999),and post-cranial (Holliday, 1995) comparative analyses of the Taforalt and Afalou-Bou-Rhummel samples with Jebel Sahaba Nubians have cast doubts on a close biological affinity; all show that the former two samples exbibit many features reminiscent of later North Africans, whereas Late Pleistocene Nubians are more like recent sub- Saharan Africans.
[...]
In prior work (Irish, 1993, 1998a,b) I describedhowthe13post-Pleistocene North African samples in the present study show an affinity to Europeans, possessing many traits that involve dental simplification and mass reduction. Homogeneity of this pattern, termed the North African Dental Trait Complex, was reported despite vast amounts of time(from8000year-old Capsians to recent Berbers) and space (from the Canary Islands to Egypt and Nubia) (Irish, 1998b).
Iberomaurusian dental trait frequencies suggest that the time depth for the North African pattern may be pushed back farther than formerly envisioned(Irish,1998b). Taforalt teeth possess simple morphology, and include such diagnostic traits as the UI2 interruption groove, LM2,+-groove pattern,four-cuspedLM2,M3agenesis(or reduction),and rocker jaw.The Afalou dentitions show a similar pattern,albeit with a trend toward greater morphological complexity. Such traits as five-cusped UM1, LM2 Y-groove pattern,five-cusped LM2, and LP1Tome’s root are present in markedly higher frequencies (see Table 1). Dentitions of Late Pleistocene Jebel Sahaba Nubians have extremely high frequencies of complex, mass-additive and other) traits, including UI1 labial curvature, UI1 shoveling, Bushman Canine, UC distal accessory ridge, midline diastema, six-cusped LM1, LM2 Y-5, and LP1 Tome’s root.Furthermore,they exhibit low frequencies of typical North African features. This trait combination is ubiquitous in sub-Saharan Africans (Irish & Turner,1990; Irish, 1993, 1997, 1998a,b, for details).
[...]
Taforalt (far left) is associated with the 13 closely clustered, post-Pleistocene samples. Within this cluster, mingling of northwest and northeast Africans reflects the dental homogeniety previously mentioned. MMD values among the 13 samples range between 0·00 and 0·08; most are not significantly different. MMDs betweenTaforalt and these samples vary from 0·02 to 0·14; seven values are not significant,including Capsians (0·06)andShawiaBerbers (0·04).Nonsignificant MMDs also occur between Taforalt and Carthaginians (0·02), Soleb Nubians (0·02), Christian Nubians (0·04), Kharga Egyptians (0·01), and Lisht Egyptians(0·05).Jebel Sahaba (far right) is significantly divergent from all others (MMD range=0·22–0·47).
Although simplistic, the x-axis can be envisioned as a line representing increasing dental complexity. Therefore, Taforalt has the most mass-reduced, while Jebel Sahaba has the most mass-additive features.
With respect to population continuity, both Iberomaurusian samples show some degree of affiliation with all later North Africans,as suggested by the sharing of many morphologically simple features found in the North African Dental Trait Complex. Taforalt exhibits the closest affiliation, based on its proximity to the post-Pleisocene cluster. Within the Maghreb, Taforalt is most akin to the Shawia Berbers and Capsians,
althoughthesmallCapsiansample
requiresthattheseresultsbeinterpreted
with caution; Afalou shows slight similitude
to Canary Island Guanches. Together, these
affinitiesmaybeindicativeofregional
population continuity, which supports sev-
eralfindings by Close (1986), Lubell and
co-workers (Lubellet al., 1984; Sheppard
& Lubell, 1990; Lubell, 2000), and per-
hapsthosehypothesizinganIberomau-
rusian/Guanche connection (Vallois, 1969;
Ferembach, 1985). However, there is no
evidence for a close affinity between Afalou
and Capsians, or with most other samples
Taforalt is allied with West Asian-derived
Carthaginians,andrecentEgyptiansand
Nubians. If not perceived as an indicator of
WestAsian(e.g.,Vallois,1969)orNile
Valley (Lubellet al., 1984) influence, these
affinities may simply represent an overall
correspondence with the mass-reduced den-
talpatternprevalentingreaterpost-
PleistoceneNorthAfrica.TheCapsian
sample is also linked with some Nubians
(Figure 2). Again, if this is not seen as sup-
port for a Capsian origin in the east (Briggs,
1954, 1955; Camps, 1974; Chamla, 1978;
Ferembach, 1962, 1985), it may represent a
fortuitous relationship due to sample size
and heterogeneity, or perhaps is sympto-
matic of pervasive post-Pleistocene dental
homogeneity.
There are more definitive answers regard-
ing the question of homogeneity between
LatePleistoceneIberomaurusiansand
Nubians. Extreme divergence between the
two suggests they are not closely related.
Whereas Afalou and, particularly, Taforalt
dentitions are characterized by dental mor-
phological reduction, the Nubians exhibit a
mass-additivedentalpattern,likethatin
sub-Saharan peoples. The latter possess a
suite of 11 mass-additive traits that I termed
the Sub-Saharan African Dental Complex
(Irish, 1997, 1998a). Thesefindings bolster
previousdental(Irish&Turner,1990,
1992; Irish, 1993, 1997, 1998a,b,c, 1999),
cranial(Franciscus,1995,personalcom-
munication,1996;Groves&Thorne,
1999),andpostcranial(Holliday,1995)
results.
Thus, evidence for a common Mechta-
Afalou population in both the Maghreb and
Nubia(Anderson,1968;Clark,1970;
Greene&Armelagos,1972;Ferembach,
1985;Dutour, 1995;Lahr & Arensburg,
1995) is not supported. Calls for similarity
based on such shared cranial features as
prominentbrows,projectingzygomatic
arches, gonial eversion, alveolar prognath-
ism,andcomplexteeth,amongothers
(Anderson, 1968; Greene, 1972; Greene &
Armelagos,1972),maybeillfounded.
Except for several Afalou traits, it was dem-
onstrated that Iberomaurusians do not pos-
ses complex teeth. Moreover, even a casual
inspection of crania in the three samples (see
Figure 3) reveals that many characteristic
Nubiantraits,including,forexample,
alveolarprognathism,areuncommonor
absent in Iberomaurusians (see Groves &
Thorne, 1999 for more detailed comparison
of traits).
Although interobserver error cannot be
ruledoutasafactor,Natufians(topof
Figure 4) are significantly divergent from
Iberomaurusians and other North Africans
(MMD range=0·10–0·43). Despite contem-
poraneity,theydiffermostfromAfalou
(0·27), Taforalt (0·27), and Jebel Sahaba
(0·43). Thesefindings support conclusions
byFerembach(1962),Camps(1974),
Hershkovitzet al. (1995), Lahr & Arensburg
(1995),andothers(seeDutour,1995)
basedonskeletalmetricandnonmetric
data.
Withreferencetoaliteraturereviewof
North African population history, 36 non-
metricdentaltraitsintwoLatePleisto-
ceneIberomaurusiansamplesfrom
Taforalt,Morocco,andAfalou-Bou-
Rhummel, Algeria, were contrasted with one
another, and with those in contemporaneous
JebelSahabaNubians,post-Pleistocene
Maghreb Capsians, and 12 younger north-
westandnortheastAfricansamples.
Comparisons of trait frequencies, and results
from the Mean Measure of Divergence dis
tance statistic using 29 of the 36 traits, facili-
tated estimates of biological affinities among
samples. Taforalt Iberomaurusians are simi-
lar to many post-Pleistocene North Africans,
including such Maghreb groups as Capsians
and Shawia Berbers. Compared to Taforalt,
Afalou Iberomaurusians are divergent from
allsamples,thoughtheyshowadistant
affinity to Canary Island Gaunches. Both
Iberomaurusian samples, as well as post-
Pleistocene North Africans, are extremely
divergent from Late Pleistocene Nubians.
The latter are more akin to sub-Saharan
Africans. All told, these numerically-derived
findings provide some level of support for
genetic continuity between, at least, Taforalt
Iberomaurusiansandlaterpopulationsin
the Maghreb and greater North Africa since
the terminal Pleistocene. However, popu-
lation heterogeneity was apparently the rule
before that time.
In the past, Iberomarusian peoples havebeencalledMechta-Afalou,Mechta el-Arbi, and/or Mechtoid types (see Ferembach,1962,1985;Vallois,1969; Chamla, 1973, 1975, 1978; Camps, 1974; Dutour, 1985). They are a skeletally-robust population that resembles European Cro-magnon to some extent (Briggs, 1955; Chamla,1978;Ferembach,1962,1985; Clark,1989; Groves & Thorne, 1999), although they are said to be more rugged (Pond, 1928; Hiernaux, 1975) or to vary in additional ways (Briggs, 1954; Ferembach, 1962; Vallois, 1969).
[..]
A few researchers maintain that the Capsians were indigenous (see below), but others (Briggs,1954,1955;Ferembach, 1962,1985:396;Camps,1974;Chamla, 1978) believe these‘‘proto-Mediterranean’’ peoples migrated into the area from the east—perhaps from as far afield as West Asia.
[...]
Iberomaurusians may have even survive into the early Holocenin the Malinese Sahara(Petit-Maire&Dutour, 1987)and along the Atlantic coast (Ferembach, 1985), and there are reports (Balout&Briggs,1949;Briggs,1954, 1955;Ferembach,1962;Chamla,1973, 1975, 1978; Camps, 1974; Camps-Fabrer, 1975)of robust Mechta-Afalou-or Mechtoid-like skeletal remains in Capsian and later Maghrebsites[e.g.Mechta el-Arbi, Medjez II, Grotte des Hye`nes, Rio Salado (see Camps, 1974 for a full listing)]. Therefore, they could indeed be ancestors to late rnorthwest Africans,including Capsians. Moreover, Lubellet al. (1984) feel that if there was eastern influence, it prob- ably came from the Nile Valley (i.e., Late Pleistocene Nubians) rather than West Asia.
Concerning the question of affinity to contemporaneous peoples, previous studies show that Late Pleistocene Nubians share a number of similarities with Iberomaurusians; the former’sQadan(ca. 15,000–11,000 BP) microlithic industry was like that in the Maghreb (Clark,1970; Ferembach, 1985; Phillipson, 1994), and they had comparable burial practices—as evident at the Jebel Sahaba cemetery (SMU117) in Lower Nubia (Wendorf, 1968).
[...]
However, Bermudez de Castro’s (1991) dental comparison between the small Wadi Halfa Nubian sample and the Taforalt and Afalou-Bou-Rhummel Iberomaurusians was inconclusive. Further, Camps (1974) reports that the Qadan tool industry differs noticeably from that of the Iberomaurusians, and describes several physical differences between the two contemporaneous populations. Along these lines, craniofacial (Franciscus,1995,personal communication,1995),dental(Irish,1999),and post-cranial (Holliday, 1995) comparative analyses of the Taforalt and Afalou-Bou-Rhummel samples with Jebel Sahaba Nubians have cast doubts on a close biological affinity; all show that the former two samples exbibit many features reminiscent of later North Africans, whereas Late Pleistocene Nubians are more like recent sub- Saharan Africans.
[...]
In prior work (Irish, 1993, 1998a,b) I describedhowthe13post-Pleistocene North African samples in the present study show an affinity to Europeans, possessing many traits that involve dental simplification and mass reduction. Homogeneity of this pattern, termed the North African Dental Trait Complex, was reported despite vast amounts of time(from8000year-old Capsians to recent Berbers) and space (from the Canary Islands to Egypt and Nubia) (Irish, 1998b).
Iberomaurusian dental trait frequencies suggest that the time depth for the North African pattern may be pushed back farther than formerly envisioned(Irish,1998b). Taforalt teeth possess simple morphology, and include such diagnostic traits as the UI2 interruption groove, LM2,+-groove pattern,four-cuspedLM2,M3agenesis(or reduction),and rocker jaw.The Afalou dentitions show a similar pattern,albeit with a trend toward greater morphological complexity. Such traits as five-cusped UM1, LM2 Y-groove pattern,five-cusped LM2, and LP1Tome’s root are present in markedly higher frequencies (see Table 1). Dentitions of Late Pleistocene Jebel Sahaba Nubians have extremely high frequencies of complex, mass-additive and other) traits, including UI1 labial curvature, UI1 shoveling, Bushman Canine, UC distal accessory ridge, midline diastema, six-cusped LM1, LM2 Y-5, and LP1 Tome’s root.Furthermore,they exhibit low frequencies of typical North African features. This trait combination is ubiquitous in sub-Saharan Africans (Irish & Turner,1990; Irish, 1993, 1997, 1998a,b, for details).
[...]
Taforalt (far left) is associated with the 13 closely clustered, post-Pleistocene samples. Within this cluster, mingling of northwest and northeast Africans reflects the dental homogeniety previously mentioned. MMD values among the 13 samples range between 0·00 and 0·08; most are not significantly different. MMDs betweenTaforalt and these samples vary from 0·02 to 0·14; seven values are not significant,including Capsians (0·06)andShawiaBerbers (0·04).Nonsignificant MMDs also occur between Taforalt and Carthaginians (0·02), Soleb Nubians (0·02), Christian Nubians (0·04), Kharga Egyptians (0·01), and Lisht Egyptians(0·05).Jebel Sahaba (far right) is significantly divergent from all others (MMD range=0·22–0·47).
Although simplistic, the x-axis can be envisioned as a line representing increasing dental complexity. Therefore, Taforalt has the most mass-reduced, while Jebel Sahaba has the most mass-additive features.
With respect to population continuity, both Iberomaurusian samples show some degree of affiliation with all later North Africans,as suggested by the sharing of many morphologically simple features found in the North African Dental Trait Complex. Taforalt exhibits the closest affiliation, based on its proximity to the post-Pleisocene cluster. Within the Maghreb, Taforalt is most akin to the Shawia Berbers and Capsians,
althoughthesmallCapsiansample
requiresthattheseresultsbeinterpreted
with caution; Afalou shows slight similitude
to Canary Island Guanches. Together, these
affinitiesmaybeindicativeofregional
population continuity, which supports sev-
eralfindings by Close (1986), Lubell and
co-workers (Lubellet al., 1984; Sheppard
& Lubell, 1990; Lubell, 2000), and per-
hapsthosehypothesizinganIberomau-
rusian/Guanche connection (Vallois, 1969;
Ferembach, 1985). However, there is no
evidence for a close affinity between Afalou
and Capsians, or with most other samples
Taforalt is allied with West Asian-derived
Carthaginians,andrecentEgyptiansand
Nubians. If not perceived as an indicator of
WestAsian(e.g.,Vallois,1969)orNile
Valley (Lubellet al., 1984) influence, these
affinities may simply represent an overall
correspondence with the mass-reduced den-
talpatternprevalentingreaterpost-
PleistoceneNorthAfrica.TheCapsian
sample is also linked with some Nubians
(Figure 2). Again, if this is not seen as sup-
port for a Capsian origin in the east (Briggs,
1954, 1955; Camps, 1974; Chamla, 1978;
Ferembach, 1962, 1985), it may represent a
fortuitous relationship due to sample size
and heterogeneity, or perhaps is sympto-
matic of pervasive post-Pleistocene dental
homogeneity.
There are more definitive answers regard-
ing the question of homogeneity between
LatePleistoceneIberomaurusiansand
Nubians. Extreme divergence between the
two suggests they are not closely related.
Whereas Afalou and, particularly, Taforalt
dentitions are characterized by dental mor-
phological reduction, the Nubians exhibit a
mass-additivedentalpattern,likethatin
sub-Saharan peoples. The latter possess a
suite of 11 mass-additive traits that I termed
the Sub-Saharan African Dental Complex
(Irish, 1997, 1998a). Thesefindings bolster
previousdental(Irish&Turner,1990,
1992; Irish, 1993, 1997, 1998a,b,c, 1999),
cranial(Franciscus,1995,personalcom-
munication,1996;Groves&Thorne,
1999),andpostcranial(Holliday,1995)
results.
Thus, evidence for a common Mechta-
Afalou population in both the Maghreb and
Nubia(Anderson,1968;Clark,1970;
Greene&Armelagos,1972;Ferembach,
1985;Dutour, 1995;Lahr & Arensburg,
1995) is not supported. Calls for similarity
based on such shared cranial features as
prominentbrows,projectingzygomatic
arches, gonial eversion, alveolar prognath-
ism,andcomplexteeth,amongothers
(Anderson, 1968; Greene, 1972; Greene &
Armelagos,1972),maybeillfounded.
Except for several Afalou traits, it was dem-
onstrated that Iberomaurusians do not pos-
ses complex teeth. Moreover, even a casual
inspection of crania in the three samples (see
Figure 3) reveals that many characteristic
Nubiantraits,including,forexample,
alveolarprognathism,areuncommonor
absent in Iberomaurusians (see Groves &
Thorne, 1999 for more detailed comparison
of traits).
Although interobserver error cannot be
ruledoutasafactor,Natufians(topof
Figure 4) are significantly divergent from
Iberomaurusians and other North Africans
(MMD range=0·10–0·43). Despite contem-
poraneity,theydiffermostfromAfalou
(0·27), Taforalt (0·27), and Jebel Sahaba
(0·43). Thesefindings support conclusions
byFerembach(1962),Camps(1974),
Hershkovitzet al. (1995), Lahr & Arensburg
(1995),andothers(seeDutour,1995)
basedonskeletalmetricandnonmetric
data.
Withreferencetoaliteraturereviewof
North African population history, 36 non-
metricdentaltraitsintwoLatePleisto-
ceneIberomaurusiansamplesfrom
Taforalt,Morocco,andAfalou-Bou-
Rhummel, Algeria, were contrasted with one
another, and with those in contemporaneous
JebelSahabaNubians,post-Pleistocene
Maghreb Capsians, and 12 younger north-
westandnortheastAfricansamples.
Comparisons of trait frequencies, and results
from the Mean Measure of Divergence dis
tance statistic using 29 of the 36 traits, facili-
tated estimates of biological affinities among
samples. Taforalt Iberomaurusians are simi-
lar to many post-Pleistocene North Africans,
including such Maghreb groups as Capsians
and Shawia Berbers. Compared to Taforalt,
Afalou Iberomaurusians are divergent from
allsamples,thoughtheyshowadistant
affinity to Canary Island Gaunches. Both
Iberomaurusian samples, as well as post-
Pleistocene North Africans, are extremely
divergent from Late Pleistocene Nubians.
The latter are more akin to sub-Saharan
Africans. All told, these numerically-derived
findings provide some level of support for
genetic continuity between, at least, Taforalt
Iberomaurusiansandlaterpopulationsin
the Maghreb and greater North Africa since
the terminal Pleistocene. However, popu-
lation heterogeneity was apparently the rule
before that time.